The latest South Bulletin provides an analysis of the Climate Conference of the UNFCCC (held in Doha in November - December 2012). The conference had low ambition in terms of emission reduction and finance for developing countries. But progress was made on “loss and damage” resulting from the effects of climate change, in the adaptation agenda.

Climate Policy Brief, February 2013

The annual United Nations climate conference held in 2012 in Doha concluded on 8 December with low levels of commitments by the developed countries in two crucial areas -- emission cuts by them, and provision of climate financing for developing countries.

Climate Policy Brief, November 2012

Developing countries have long been at the frontlines of climate change and bearing the brunt of its impacts on sustainable development prospects and even, in many cases, physical survival and territorial integrity. These underscore the need for global cooperation and action on climate change.

Climate Policy Brief, September 2012

Since January 2012, aviation has been included in the European Union’s Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). The Aviation ETS requires aircraft operators to surrender one allowance per tonne of carbon-dioxide emitted on a flight to and from (and within) the EU. This covers passenger, cargo and non-commercial flights and applies no matter where an aircraft operator is based. Each such airline would have to comply with a benchmark set by the EU on the basis of its average annual emissions in respect of flights to and from the EU. One of the most controversial aspects of the EU measure is that it calculates an airline’s emissions from the point of take off; this means that a flight from New Delhi to London, which flies within the EU only for a few hours, would have to account to the EU for its emissions from New Delhi itself. EU’s rationale in putting in place the system, evidently, is to ensure that its own operators are not at a competitive disadvantage.

SouthViews

No.23,              24 July 2012 SOUTHVIEWS is a service of the South Centre to provide opinions and analysis of topical issues from a South perspective.  Visit the South Centre’s website: www.southcentre.org   Equity is the Gateway to Environment Ambition: South Centre statement in UNFCCC Below is the statement by Martin Khor, Executive Director of the South Centre, which was presented at the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Ad-hoc Working Group on Long-term Cooperative Action (AWG-LCA) Workshop on Equity in Bonn on 16 May 2012. ……………………………………………………………… In the quest for an international climate agreement on actions to address the climate change crisis, three aspects have to be the basis simultaneously: the environmental imperative, the developmental imperative, and the equity imperative. This EDE formula requires that the different pieces of the climate negotiations be seen and addressed as a whole, in a holistic way. In particular, setting the global goal for emission reduction has to take account of the environmental imperative, and also deal with the emission reduction of Annex I and non-Annex I Parties. Equity is the element and principle that cements the link between environment and development. Indeed, equity is the gateway to environmental ambition.     For example, fixing of a temperature target and of a global emissions reduction goal must be done within a paradigm or framework for the equitable sharing of the atmospheric space and the development space.   The sharing of the mitigation efforts, and the support (finance and technology transfer) that must accompany this sharing is a most critical piece of the jigsaw puzzle. The UN Climate Convention recognises the equity principle; that developed countries take the lead in emission reduction, and that developing countries have development imperatives, and their ability to undertake climate actions depend on the extent of support they receive from the developed countries. Annex I countries will also meet the agreed full incremental costs of implementing developing countries' mitigation measures, as well as providing financing on adaptation and technology.  There are competing claims on a national budget or a family budget. The trade-offs and dilemmas are more acute for the poor. A poor family would put greater priority on feeding the children and on health care, and also on adaptation action such as preventing floods and rain from occupying the house, ahead of spending on mitigation. Thus, financial assistance is required if changing to more environmentally sound cook stoves is to be done by the family. So too regarding a typical budget making exercise by developing countries. Thus the provision of finance to support mitigation in developing countries, which is oprerationalising the equity principle, would be a necessary piece of effective global migitation action. Recognising the gateway role of equity to higher environmental ambition is not a rhetorical but a logical and realistic way of getting to a successful mitigation framework.    Between 1850 and 2009, about 1,280 Gigatons of CO2 were emitted, thus adding to the stock of CO2 in the atmosphere. To achieve a 67% probability of limiting temperature rise to within 2 degrees Celsius, CO2 emissions in 2010-2050 must be kept to below 750 Gt; a 75% probability requires a 600 Gt budget. Of the cumulative global emissions Annex I countries accounted for 72% of the total compared to their share of population of about 25%. Developing countries accounted 28% of the total. The over-utilisation by Annex I was 568 Gton, the same as the under-utilisation by developing countries. In terms of annual flow, Annex I is still exceeding its fair share.   In sharing the remaining carbon space in 2010-2050 two concepts are needed: (1) The allocation of carbon space as according to rights and responsibilities; (2) The actual carbon budget (and related physical emissions reduction schedule) that countries eventually put forward as what they can physically undertake. There could be a difference between the allocation of responsibilities and rights, and the actual emissions reduction or related budgets. Therefore: Countries that cannot meet their allocated budget or emission cut can compensate for this unmet part of their obligation and countries that do not make full use of these rights, can obtain the funds for their actions. The equity approach has implications for the various topics under LCA. In shared vision, the setting of a global goal for emission reduction should be accompanied by a clarification of the roles of developed and developing countries. For example, a proposal of a global goal of 50% and an Annex I goal of 80% proposal raises some issues. Firstly, the 50% global cut is environmentally not ambitious enough, as it would correspond to a carbon budget above what is required. Secondly, the implied distribution of the carbon budget gives Annex I countries a budget share of 30-35 per cent, compared to their 16% share of world population in this period. Thirdly, acceptance of this proposal means accepting not only an unfair distribution of the 2010-50 carbon budgets, but also writing off the cumulative debt of developed countries. Fourthly, accepting these figures (50%, 80%) implicitly accepts specific emissions cut target for developing countries, and locking in this whole distribution of carbon budget and set of emissions cuts.   It implies that in 2050, Annex I total and per capita emissions would be cut by 80% while developing countries’ per capita emissions would be cut to 1.5 ton or about half below 1990 levels and compared to 2005 levels it would be around 40% below in absolute terms and 60% below in per capita terms. The cuts would be even more compared to business as usual in 2050. It is doubtful that developing countries can meet this implied target for them, unless decoupling between emissions and economic growth takes place through a miraculous mechanism. For this decoupling, massive infusions of finance and technology, coupled with institutional and human capacity building is required.   This is why equity is also embedded in the finance and technology issues. The enormity of the problem was not lost on the economist Nicholas Stern who has said : “If the allocations of rights to emit in any given year took greater account both of history and of equity in stocks rather than flows, then rich countries would have rights to emit which were lower than 2 tonnes per capita (possibly even negative). The negotiations of such right involve substantial financial allocations: at $40 per tonne CO2e a total world allocation of rights of, say, 30Gt (roughly the required flows in 2030) would be worth $1.2 trillion per annum”. On estimates on mitigation funds needed, the World Bank estimated that: “In developing countries mitigation could cost $140 to $175 billion a year with associated financing needs of $265 to $565 billion. A study in India (by the CSE) of six sectors to determine India's low carbon growth options concludes: “There is no real way we can reduce emissions without impacting growth once we cross the current emissions-efficiency technology threshold...It is for this reason that India (and all other late entrants to the development game) must not give up on their demand for an equitous global agreement.”   For the power generation sector, a low-carbon strategy could reduce emissions in India cumulatively by 3.4 Gton by 2030-31. The additional cost of generating power from renewable technologies is estimated at US$203 bil or about $10 bil a year or $60 per tonne of CO2 emissions avoided. On adaptation financing needs, the World Bank estimates up to $100 billion a year, higher than the UNFCCC's financial flows report (at $27 to $66 bil a year). The most comprehensive estimate is a IIED-Imperial College study led by Martin Parry which found the adaptation cost for developing countries may come up to $450 billion annually. Financing for technology cooperation and transfer: The UNFCCC's expert group on technology (EGTT) estimates the total finance needs are $300-1,000 billion a year; with developing countries' additional funding needs of $182 – 505 billion a year, for deployment and diffusion of technology. This does not include research and development or demonstration costs in developing countries. IMPLICATIONS FOR NEGOTIATIONS (a) Shared Vision: In the negotiations on shared vision, developing countries have argued that a decision on a global goal (whether temperature limit or global emissions reduction) should be in the context of equity and to be preceded by a paradigm for the equitable sharing of the atmospheric space or resource. This should also be the case for the wording on a global peaking year.   This is a correct position because the global goals for temperature and emissions reduction have implications for the responsibilities of developing countries or for their options in their emissions and thus their economic pathways. This principle of equity in the sharing of atmospheric space has to be operationalised with the use of carbon budget and debt concepts. The data on fair shares and actual emissions and thus on debt/surplus also have major implications for the sharing of the carbon space in the 2010-2050 period, and thus of the allocation of emission obligations and rights as would be expressed in the shared vision's important element of “global goal for emissions reduction.” (b) Mitigation: The concepts and figures on cumulative emissions and carbon debt/surplus make it clear that Annex I Parties must continue to “take the lead” in emissions reduction. If developed countries undertake only weak targets for the next commitment period and their emissions are only reduced a little (or even increases), then there is even less carbon space left for developing countries. The present pledges made either in the Copenhagen Accord or Kyoto Protocol are far from adequate. Various analyses show that the Annex I (including the US) pledges add up collectively to only a 16% reduction (by 2020 compared to 1990) at best and if loopholes (through LULUCF and AAUs) are taken into account there can even be a 6.5% increase in Annex I emissions.  (c) Finance: One way in which the historical carbon debt that developed countries hold may be discharged is through payments into the Green Climate Fund. Besides this, the developed countries have obligations under the UNFCCC to meet mitigation, adaptation and capacity building expenses. The quantum of funds for discharging the carbon debt and for meeting the additional costs are large, but this is to be expected since the financial requirements of adaptation, mitigation, capacity building and technology are massive. The amounts so far announced ($10 bil a year from 2010, and $100 bil by 2020) are inadequate. (d) Technology Transfer: To play their extremely ambitious and difficult role, developing countries need technology at the most affordable rates. The following measures are proposed: (1) They must have the maximum access at least cost to the best technologies; (2) Barriers to technology transfer must be addressed, including the issue of IPRs; (3) Developing countries must be assisted in the development of endogenous technology and to undertake their own R and D and develop innovation, with international support; (4) R and D activities should be financed by UNFCCC funds, and the products from these should be in the public domain; (5) Sufficient funds should be provided for technology development and transfer to developing countries.; (6) A Technology Policy Board or Council should be set up under the UNFCCC to address the technology issues. FOLLOW-UP PROCESS The   workshop   on   equity   in   the AWGLCA on 16 May 2012 is an important opportunity to discuss the role and importance of equity in the UNFCCC and its outcomes and future negotiations. The paper above attempts to show how pervasive the implications of the equity principle are. The workshop is a good start, and it should be followed up by a process, in order to contribute to progress in the negotiations in various structures of the UNFCCC.  It is thus proposed that a work programme be established in the UNFCCC under the COP and which would have effect in its bodies and working groups. The objective should be to examine the various aspects of equity as a principle in UNFCCC and how it is to be operationalized in various issues (mitigation, adaptation, finance, technology, shared vision) and various bodies and working groups of the Convention. The recognition and operationalizing of the equity principle will be a major gateway for the raising of environmental ambition, including in facilitating that the means of implementation can be provided in adequate amounts and appropriate forms to developing countries so that they can contribute more to the global mitigation effort as well as to meeting their adaptation needs.                            Contact: director@southcentre.org. This article was published in the South Bulletin (11 June 2012). To view other articles in SouthViews, please click here. For more information, please contact Vicente Paolo Yu of the South Centre: Email yu@southcentre.org, or telephone +41 22 791 80 50.

This issue of the South Bulletin focuses on the Rio Plus 20 Summit to be held in 20-22 June in Brazil.  The meetings actually begin on 13 June.

Twenty years after the Earth Summit the world faces even more serious crises in the environment and the economy.  Will Rio+20 do better in rising to the challenge of tackling the global crises?

After two years of negotiations, the Summit meetings are now underway.  But the outcome of the Summit is still far from decided.

Research Paper 45, June 2012

The new research paper discusses on contexts and recent negotiations in Technology Transfer, Sustainable Development and Climate Change. In terms of proprietary rights, the author categories technologies and related products into three domains: the Public Technologies; Patented Technologies and Future Technologies. After revealing the Effects of Patents on Access to Climate-Related Technologies, a number of measures are discussed to address problems arising should patents become a barrier to the transfer of climate related technologies.

This issue of the South Bulletin has two major main issues: The Durban Climate Conference, and the WTO's 8th Ministerial Conference, both held in December 2011.

The Durban conference has given rise to a new round of climate change negotiations, which will start in 2012 and is scheduled to end in 2015. This decision was made after intense negotiations lasting several days and during a dramatic night of plenary sessions marked by passionate speeches. Though the decision was made to launch new talks leading to a legal protocol or "an agreed outcome with legal force", the terms of reference of the new round will be decided next year, when the differences among countries can be expected to continue.

At the WTO's Ministerial Conference in Geneva, there was (in contrast to Durban) a calm and relaxed atmosphere. But there were also many issues that divided the countries, mainly on North-South lines. The South Bulletin provides preliminary analyses of these two major events.

Policy Brief, November 2011

Twenty years after the Rio Summit 1992, the global sustainable development situation has deteriorated. The environment crisis has worsened. After a period of good development performances in some developing countries, the prospects for the global economy have worsened, with the financial-economic crisis now affecting Europe and the US, which has implications for developing countries. Many developing countries followed an export-led growth strategy; however if the economies of developed countries are stalling, this strategy has to be reviewed. The social dimension is bound to be affected by the environment and economic crises, which has adverse effects on poverty, employment and social services, food security, health, etc.

Climate Policy Brief, November 2011

The Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI) has recently issued a report that examines four recent detailed studies of countries’ mitigation pledges under the Cancun Agreements, for the purpose of comparing developed (Annex 1) country pledges to developing (non-Annex 1) country pledges. It finds that there is broad agreement that developing country pledges amount to more mitigation than developed country pledges. That conclusion is robust, in that it applies across all four studies and across all their various cases, despite the diversity of assumptions and methodologies employed and the substantial differences in their quantification of the pledges.  

In this issue of the South Bulletin, we provide reports of the visit to the Philippines of the Chairman and Board members of the South Centre.

They met with the President of the Philippines, and also held meetings with the Foreign Secretary and the Governor of Cebu.

The South Centre Board also took part in a conference in Manila and met leaders of other agencies.

Bonn, 14 June 2011

The Executive Director of South Centre made a presentation at the Special Event, organised by the Chairs of the Subsidiary Bodies on Implementation (SBI) and Science and Technological Advice (SBSTA). This is an outline of his presentation.

This issue of South Bulletin focuses on the deep impasse in the World Trade Organization’s Doha negotiations. The "crunch time" has come for these talks.  Although political leaders in the G20 pledged to conclude the talks by 2011, this is not likely to happen because there are still big gaps between the positions of developed and developing countries.

Climate Policy Brief, March 2011

The 2010 climate conference of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which took place in Cancun (Mexico) on 29 November to 11 December was complex in both process and content, and in both aspects it will have an importance and ramifications that will take several years to unfold.

Climate Policy Brief 3, 30 November 2010

The South Centre released a new Policy Brief addressing some key issues on Cancun Climate Conference, including the lowering of expectations; the Fate and Shape of the Global Climate Regulatory Regime; Disastrous Projection of Pledges; the Obligations Proposed for Developing Countries; and  Cancun  New Structures in Finance, Technology and Adaptation.

Research Paper 33, November 2010

This South Centre Research Paper aims to contribute to the discussion on the issues of environment, development and equity that are at the centre of the climate, development and equity nexus.

The new South has a cover story on why developing countries should also be eligible for compensation by transnational companies responsible for environmental disasters. The recent $20 bil fund set up by BP for the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico should be a model for companies to compensate for disasters such as in Bhopal, the Ecuadorian Amazon and the Niger Delta.

The Bulletin also focuses on ACTA (Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement), a TRIPS-Plus treaty being negotiated by 11 members that would be harmful to health and consumer interests and to developing countries. The Bulletin analyses ACTA and carries statements by India, China and Brazil at the WTO on why TRIPS-Plus enforcement is harmful.

Other articles make comments on the austerity policies of developed countries, and on why a climate deal needs to be based on equity in “carbon space”

This latest issue of South Bulletin focuses on why China and other East Asian developing countries require a rethinking of the growth strategies, as the global economic slowdown has exposed their over-reliance on exports.

The articles include estimates on the dependence of China on exports for its growth (much higher than previously estimated), why the trade surplus of China with the US is much smaller than widely thought, and the way forward for future growth in China. Another aricle discusses why other East Asian countries face deeper problems and also need a policy re-thinking.

The Bulletin reports on the latest June climate talks in Bonn:  how developing countries suffered a setback in a new text, and how the talks reveal continuing deep differences.Another article reports on a dire warning by climate scientists why the "paltry pledges" of the Copenhagen Accord are driving the world to a temperature increase of 3 to 4 degrees.

Research Paper 29, May 2010

The new released South Centre Research Paper is to examine some important aspects of the linkage between climate change and trade-related issues. In particular, the paper looks at developments in policies taken by governments and the inter-governmental processes to deal with the crisis in climate change, including within the international climate change regime, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and their inter-linkages with the multilateral trade regime, in particular the World Trade Organization (WTO).

Only 2 of 10 developed countries’ pledges are sufficient to meet the 2 degrees target, and the current pledges lead the world to disastrous global warming of over 3 degrees.

Policy Brief, January 2010

This Policy Brief looks at the process leading up to and the substantive provisions of the Copenhagen Accord. It identifies key issues in the Accord that would be important to consider for developing countries in light of their potential implications for the UNFCCC negotiations.

This Informal Note analyzes the Copenhagen Accord in terms of its legal nature and its substantive content, outlines important issues and concerns for the consideration of developing countries in the context of the UNFCCC negotiations and their development implications, and identifies some options that developing countries may consider in the context of their future action in relation to the Copenhagen Accord.

Research Paper 25, November 2009

This research paper looks at the extent of compliance by developed countries listed in Annex I of the UNFCCC of their obligations under the UNFCCC to undertake mitigation and to provide financing, technology, and capacity building to developing countries.

Analytical Note, December 2009

This analytical note looks at how MRV metrics and modalities in relation to paragraphs 1(b)(i) and (ii) of the UNFCCC Bali Action Plan (BAP) can be made operational in ways that reflect the primary sustainable development concerns and perspectives of developing country Parties to the UNFCCC. It suggests that such metrics and modalities have to take into account existing modalities with a view towards further enhancing the effective implementation of the UNFCCC by all Parties.

This document seeks to outline the positive and constraining aspects of various options relating to the possible forms that the agreed outcome of the AWG-LCA process could result in, consistent with its mandate under the Bali Action Plan to enhance the full, sustained and effective implementation of the UNFCCC “now, up to and beyond 2012”. 

Analytical Note, August 2009

This Analytical Note examines flexibilities in the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and possible technology transfer approaches under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as among the possible modalities that developing countries can use to obtain access to and affect transfers of climate-relevant technologies. It looks at the possibilities and challenges that need to be addressed in this regard.

Mr. Vice Yu, Coordinator, Global Governance for Development Programme of the South Centre, made a presentation on " The Future of Global Economic Governance in the Face of Global Crises – South Perspectives" at CIDSE Expert Meeting: Crises in global governance, opportunities for global justice  organized by CIDSE (Internacional Cooperation for Development and Solidarity), Brussels on 12 February 2009.

The meeting summary is available at: http://www.cidse.org/aboutus/?id=1011

South Centre Analytical Note - January 2009

This Analytical Note looks at the level and delivery vehicles of public financing for climate change actions in developing countries from developed country Parties of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (i.e. the Parties listed in Annex I of the Convention). It argues that such public financing from Annex I Parties as is available falls far short of what is needed, shows preference for non-UNFCCC delivery vehicles, and is essentially double-counted as compliance by these Annex I Parties with their official development assistance (ODA) and climate financing commitments. It concludes that existing modalities under which climate financing is being provided by developed countries have the effect of weakening the UNFCCC in terms of its role as a catalyst and vehicle for climate financing that is consistent with and supports theobjectives of the UNFCCC.

This Issue of the South Bulletin focuses upon the possible WTO Mini-Ministerial in Geneva in mid-December and the Climate Change Conference which is underway in Poznan, Poland. South Centre is working closely with the G-77 and the Member Countries on both these events.

The Editorial by Dr. Yash Tandon, Executive Director of the South Centre is on “A Case For Radical Reform of the World Trade Organisation” and the “Leader Speak” is by H.E Evo Morales Ayma, President of Bolivia on “Save the Planet from Capitalism”.

This Issue of the South Bulletin reflects upon the recently held G-20 Meeting, the upcoming Financing for Development Conference in Doha, and the Climate Change Conference in Poznan. The Editorial by Dr. Yash Tandon, Executive Director of the South Centre is on “Why the Ecuadorian Proposal May Be a Better Response to Financial Crisis than the G20 Declaration”. Under the “Leader Speak” section you can read some of the messages shared by the Heads of the State of developing countries who participated in the recent G-20 Summit on Financial Crisis in Washington DC. 

Analysis and commentaries appearing in the Bulletin, include on Rhetoric vs. Reality: The Real Issue of Global Sustainability; Poznań Climate Conference: Overview and Submissions by Developing Countries; Doha Financing for Development Talks: What Should Developing Countries Push for?; The Ecuadorian Proposal for a Crisis Response Agenda from the South; and Development Through Choice.

South Centre Analytical Note - September 2008

This Analytical Note stresses that both sustainable development and climate change are interlinked. Climate change will have impacts on the pace and progress of developing countries’ efforts to achieve sustainable development objectives, while achieving such objectives form the fundamental premise upon which developing countries are undertaking their actions to address climate change. Sustainable development is a legitimate aspiration of developing countries whose populations are affected by a wide range of poverty- and climate change-related impacts.

This Issue of the South Bulletin focuses on the Third High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness taking place on 2-4 September in Accra, Ghana. The Editorial by H.E. Benjamin W. Mkapa, Chairman of the South Centre is on  "Beyond the Paris Declaration" while the Op-Ed piece by Dr. Yash Tandon, Executive Director of the South Centre is on "Ending Aid Dependence: Conceptual Traps of an Outdated Aid Vocabulary".

Analysis and commentaries appearing in the Bulletin, include those on Behind the July Failure of the Doha Round; The Cost of Doing Nothing on Climate Change; EPA for whose benefit?; and on The Destruction of African Agriculture. In addition, this issue includes a review of the book “Ending Aid Dependence” recently published book by the South Centre which will be launched at the Accra High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness.

South Centre Analytical Note - August 2008

The paper analyses the positive impact of Decentralized Renewable Energy Technologies on enhancing climate change adaptation capacity in developing countries facing climate change-related increasing hazards. The paper concludes with some recommendations for implementing decentralized renewable energy technologies for climate adaptation in developing countries.

South Centre Analytical Note - May 2008

This South Centre Analytical Note stresses that the provision of financing to developing countries to implement the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is required of developed countries under the Convention. But such financing has not yet been provided. This Analytical Note suggests that the COP directly operate the Convention’s financial mechanism by setting up a Climate Change Fund (CCF) that would fully respond to the requirements of the Convention as part of the global community’s response to climate change.

South Centre Analytical Note - May 2008

This South Centre Analytical Note suggests that the modalities for the “measurable, reportable, and verifiable” (MRV) conditions under operative paragraph 1(b)(i) and (ii) of the Bali Action Plan should be the existing MRV modalities with respect to mitigation commitments, financing, technology transfer, and capacity-building under the Convention. 

Analytical Note - February 2008

This South Centre Analytical Note stresses that addressing the challenges of development and climate change requires an integrated approach. Both the trade and climate regimes have a role to play. In each case, a development perspective must guide discussions to ensure an outcome that advances the needs and aspirations of developing countries and their peoples. The shift to a low-carbon economy requires a range of measures to support developing countries, and sufficient development policy space to allow those countries to tailor approaches to their national contexts. In particular, developed countries must fulfill their existing international obligations in both the trade and climate regimes, and ensure that their development-related rhetoric is matched by the reality of their actions. This paper identifies a number of areas where developed countries are falling short in promoting development-oriented outcomes on trade and climate issues, and where further efforts should be made.

 

Special Policy Discussion Paper - November 2007

Introduction: The Need for Urgent Global Action on Development and Climate Change (excerpt)

Human-induced climate change is now well recognized as a physical and global reality. Global warming associated with climate change has begun to affect global weather patterns, sea levels, snow cover, ice sheets and rainfall. Regional climate patterns shifts are already affecting watersheds and ecosystems all over the world. The human and financial costs to countries of coping with extreme weather events, crop failures and other emergencies related to climate are growing higher. Developing countries, especially Least Developed Countries (LDCs) and Small Island Developing States (SIDS), who are already facing difficulties in alleviating poverty as a result of their economic situation, are especially vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.

Unless current rates of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are drastically cut and reversed, global average temperatures will rise by at least 2C by 2050, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). This will result in, among others, the creation of hundreds of millions of environmental refugees mostly from developing countries, acute water shortages of large proportions of the global population (again mostly in developing countries), food shortages as agricultural production goes down all over the world, sea level rise of at least 1 meter1, and the extinction of a third of the world’s species. Even before that, the expected 1C rise by 2020 and the 1.3C rise by 2025 will already have devastating impacts on the lives and livelihood of people, especially the poor and especially in developing countries.

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